Revolutionary America

The government of George III introduced a plan of imperial reorganization in 1763. These reforms were not welcomed in many parts of America, where the cry of “no taxation without representation” was heard.

Beginning in the mid-1760s, Britain attempted to fine-tune its colonial control through the Stamp Act (1765), the Quartering Act (1765), and Townshend Duties (1767)—all of which tended to inflame public opinion rather than dampen it. Boston became the focus of colonial opposition in the Boston Massacre (1770), the Boston Tea Party (1773) and the Parliamentary response in the Coercive Acts (1774).

Further colonial resistance was put up by the Sons of Liberty and the Committees of Correspondence. Formal opposition came from the First Continental Congress and the Second Continental Congress.

America and Britain entered the conflict with differing strategies and strengths. Hostilities erupted at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. (See timeline of the War of Independence.) George Washington was appointed commander of the Continental Army in June 1775. Public opinion was coaxed to acceptance of independence by Thomas Paine’s Common Sense in early 1776. The formal break with the mother country came in the Declaration of Independence (July 1776), largely the work of Thomas Jefferson.

Early military engagements occurred at Bunker Hill (June 1775), in the Canadian campaign (1775-76) and in the South. Later, action shifted to the New York campaign (1776). Washington temporarily reversed a series of defeats at Trenton and Princeton (late 1776 and early 1777), but British forces succeeded in taking Philadelphia in late 1777.

The turning point of the War came at Saratoga (1777), a victory that enabled American diplomats to negotiate a French Alliance (1778). Hostilities continued in theWestern Theater and the Southern Theater. The main British force surrendered atYorktown in October 1781.

Peace was achieved in the Treaty of Paris (1783) with Benjamin Franklin playing a prominent role.

Colonial Period

The following are the 13 original colonies, plus Maine, listed alphabetically with the generally recognized founding dates in parentheses:

Connecticut (1636): Original Inhabitants, Exploration and Settlement, Thomas Hooker,New England Confederation,Dominion of New England,Connecticut and the American Revolution

Delaware (1638): Original Inhabitants, Exploration and Settlement, Delaware and the American Revolution

Georgia (1732): Original Inhabitants, Exploration and Settlement, Georgia and the American Revolution

Maryland (1634): Original Inhabitants, Exploration and Settlement, Maryland and the American Revolution

Massachusetts (1620): Original Inhabitants, Exploration and Settlement, Plymouth Colony, Massachusetts Bay Colony, the Great Awakening, Massachusetts and the American Revolution.

Maine (developed as part of Massachusetts and was not an original colony): Original Inhabitants, Exploration and Settlement, Maine and the American Revolution

New Hampshire (1630): Original Inhabitants, Exploration and Settlement, New Hampshire and the American Revolution

New Jersey (1660): Original Inhabitants, Exploration and Settlement, New Jersey and the American Revolution

New York (1626): Original Inhabitants, Exploration, the Dutch in New York, theEnglish in New York, Leisler's Rebellion, John Peter Zenger, New York and the American Revolution


North Carolina (1653): Original Inhabitants, Exploration and Settlement, Culpeper’s Rebellion, Tuscarora War, Blackbeard, Regulator Movement, North Carolina and the American Revolution

Pennsylvania (1682): Original Inhabitants, Exploration and Settlement, New Sweden, William Penn, Society of Friends, Early Pennsylvania, Warfare with Native Americans, Pennsylvania and the American Revolution

Rhode Island (1636): Original Inhabitants, Exploration and Settlement, Roger Williams, Rhode Island and the American Revolution

South Carolina (1670): Original Inhabitants, Exploration and Settlement, Regulator Movement, South Carolina and the American Revolution

Virginia (1607): Original Inhabitants, Exploration and Settlement, Jamestown, the slave trade, the West, Patrick Henry, Virginia and the American Revolution

On two occasions in the 17th century, efforts were made to formulate a rudimentary union among the New England colonies: The New England Confederation and the Dominion of New England .

Britain ruled her worldwide empire, including the American colonies, under the terms of an economic theory known as mercantilism. It was the attempt to enforce this system that provided fuel for the American Revolution.

All of the colonies were to some degree impacted in the 18th century by a Contest for Empire, which pitted the great world powers, France and England, against one another. The most significant North American phase of this conflict was the French and Indian War (1754-63).

Early America

Most authorities believe that the Western hemisphere was populated at the end of the last ice age when a lowered ocean level exposed a land bridge that Asian peoples traversed to North America.

Later, the arriving European settlers discovered the existence of extensive civilizations. In the southern reaches of North America (present-day Mexico and Central America) the Mayan civilization built sophisticated stone structures, developed an advanced numerical system and maintained extensive agricultural complexes. TheAztecs established a far-reaching empire that controlled much of present-day Mexico.

In the northern portions of North America the early native peoples are commonly divided into the following regional groups:


The Eastern Woodland culture was located in the drainage area of the Mississippi River east to the Atlantic Ocean and south from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. Various groups of mound builders existed in this region.


The Plains culture existed on the open expanses of present-day Canada and the United States.


The Southwest culture occupied areas in present-day northern Mexico and the southwestern United States. Notable within this grouping were the Pueblo societies in present-day New Mexico and Arizona.


The Far West culture ranged from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean.


The Northwest culture inhabited the coastal regions of the northwestern UnitedStates and western Canada


The Subarctic culture stretched across Canada north of the Great Lakes and south of the Arctic tree line, and across much of Alaska


The Arctic culture occupied the treeless expanses in the extreme northern portions of Alaska, Canada, and Greenland

Historical evidence for early European ventures to the New World is in dispute, but it appears that Norsemen, including Leif Eriksson , made voyages to the area toward the end of the 10th century.

Europe lacked the technological skills and motivation to immediately follow the Vikings into the New World. Conditions changed, however, during the 1400s. Portugal emerged as the first nation-state to engage in an organized effort to reach the lucrative Far Eastern markets by means of an all-water route.

Next, Spanish exploration of the New World followed the voyages of Christopher Columbus, 1492-1504. Settlements were established in the hope of finding mineral wealth, converting the native populations to Christianity, and for the thrill of a great adventure.

England and France followed Spain into the Americas in the early 17th century, later to be joined by Holland and, briefly, Sweden.

Northern European interest in exploration was fueled by the search for a Northwest Passage. Later, attention was turned to the establishment of permanent colonies. The English failed in an effort at Roanoke Island in the 1580s, but succeeded at Jamestown in 1607. In 1620, a Pilgrim colony was established at Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts, followed in 1630 by the Puritan colony of Massachusetts Bay.

The white settlements in New England sparked interaction with local Native Americans, notably the Narragansett and the Pequot. The ultimate failure of the relationships was seen in the Pequot War (1637) and King Philip’s War (1675-76).